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Speed cameras - What you should know
17 Jun 2011|64,659 views
We've all fallen victim to these dreaded devices at one time or another in our motoring experiences. If you've been fortunate enough to avoid being captured by these grey boxes thus far, the authorities will eventually get a Kodak moment of you. If not now, then maybe five years down the road. Such is the brutal effectiveness of these silent sentinels.
Oddly enough, the speed camera was developed by a Dutch rally racing driver named Maurice Gatsonides back in the 1960s. He invented the camera (quite innocently enough) as a way of recording his speed when he drove through various corners and differing road surface conditions.
Later Gatsonides founded Gatsometer BV that began developing the system further and marketed it to police agencies as a way of speed enforcement. Since then, the Gatso has become the bane of all motorists the world over. Gatso speed cameras are now used internationally with their biggest grouping in Europe where the word 'Gatso' is commonly used when referring to speed cameras.
Law enforcement agencies around the world have lauded the device as a means of improving road safety through speed enforcement. In recent years though, data collected has shown that these devices have no impact on accidents and in some instances even perpetuates accidents when drivers apply their brakes at the last minute after spotting them. Proving the long held belief that these devices are nothing more than another revenue stream with which governments use to fill their coffers.
Types of Speed cameras
Modern speed cameras depend on a number of different sensors to detect the speed of an approaching vehicle. We take a look at the two most popular types of detection used in modern speed cameras...
Radar
The most commonly used sensor for stationary speed cameras is RADAR. Radar in itself is actually an acronym that stands for RAdio Detecting And Ranging. Radar uses high frequency radio waves that are transmitted in a cone shape. The radio waves reflect back to its transmitter/receiver when it encounters a solid object in its path. The reflected signals are then calculated using algorithms to determine the speed, distance and direction of the object.
Radar speed cameras are divided into two types. Stationary cameras usually rely on having a transmitter permanently on and pointing towards the road (usually the fastest lane).Thus triggering immediately when a vehicle is detected going over the limit. An example of such cameras can be found on our local expressways. One such example resides along the PIE near the BKE exit.
The second type uses pulse radar that requires the camera to be manned. The radar is turned on only long enough to get a speed reading. This system is however not deployed by the local authorities.
Laser
Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation though most of us will know it only as a thin red beam of light that we use on our Powerpoint presentations. This electromagnetic radiation transmits at a significantly higher frequency thus its smaller beam.
The width of a laser beam is much thinner compared to a radar. At 1000 metres, the beam from a laser is only three metres which is miniscule compared to the radar. This allows a laser based camera to have an operational range of 800 metres and lock on to a target vehicle within 0.3 to 0.7 seconds.
Due to its compact size and extended operating range, the laser speed camera sees liberal use on our local roads. The cameras are usually deployed by just one officer thanks to its compact size. The officers usually position themselves on overhead bridges that cross a major road or expressway with a clear line of sight in either direction. Letting them use the camera's 800 metre range to great effect.
Recently, the officers operating these cameras have taken to using sneakier tactics to catch motorists unaware. Rather than taking a prominent perch in the centre of the overhead bridge overlooking the road, they've resorted to standing at the extreme ends of the bridge to camouflage themselves. Though this cuts down on the laser speed camera's effective range, the camera is still effective due to its short lock-on time.
Oddly enough, the speed camera was developed by a Dutch rally racing driver named Maurice Gatsonides back in the 1960s. He invented the camera (quite innocently enough) as a way of recording his speed when he drove through various corners and differing road surface conditions.
Later Gatsonides founded Gatsometer BV that began developing the system further and marketed it to police agencies as a way of speed enforcement. Since then, the Gatso has become the bane of all motorists the world over. Gatso speed cameras are now used internationally with their biggest grouping in Europe where the word 'Gatso' is commonly used when referring to speed cameras.
Law enforcement agencies around the world have lauded the device as a means of improving road safety through speed enforcement. In recent years though, data collected has shown that these devices have no impact on accidents and in some instances even perpetuates accidents when drivers apply their brakes at the last minute after spotting them. Proving the long held belief that these devices are nothing more than another revenue stream with which governments use to fill their coffers.
Types of Speed cameras
Modern speed cameras depend on a number of different sensors to detect the speed of an approaching vehicle. We take a look at the two most popular types of detection used in modern speed cameras...
Radar
The most commonly used sensor for stationary speed cameras is RADAR. Radar in itself is actually an acronym that stands for RAdio Detecting And Ranging. Radar uses high frequency radio waves that are transmitted in a cone shape. The radio waves reflect back to its transmitter/receiver when it encounters a solid object in its path. The reflected signals are then calculated using algorithms to determine the speed, distance and direction of the object.
Radar speed cameras are divided into two types. Stationary cameras usually rely on having a transmitter permanently on and pointing towards the road (usually the fastest lane).Thus triggering immediately when a vehicle is detected going over the limit. An example of such cameras can be found on our local expressways. One such example resides along the PIE near the BKE exit.
The second type uses pulse radar that requires the camera to be manned. The radar is turned on only long enough to get a speed reading. This system is however not deployed by the local authorities.
 |
Laser
Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation though most of us will know it only as a thin red beam of light that we use on our Powerpoint presentations. This electromagnetic radiation transmits at a significantly higher frequency thus its smaller beam.
The width of a laser beam is much thinner compared to a radar. At 1000 metres, the beam from a laser is only three metres which is miniscule compared to the radar. This allows a laser based camera to have an operational range of 800 metres and lock on to a target vehicle within 0.3 to 0.7 seconds.
Due to its compact size and extended operating range, the laser speed camera sees liberal use on our local roads. The cameras are usually deployed by just one officer thanks to its compact size. The officers usually position themselves on overhead bridges that cross a major road or expressway with a clear line of sight in either direction. Letting them use the camera's 800 metre range to great effect.
Recently, the officers operating these cameras have taken to using sneakier tactics to catch motorists unaware. Rather than taking a prominent perch in the centre of the overhead bridge overlooking the road, they've resorted to standing at the extreme ends of the bridge to camouflage themselves. Though this cuts down on the laser speed camera's effective range, the camera is still effective due to its short lock-on time.
Avoiding the dreaded flash
There has been a civilian arms race against falling victim to these speed enforcement devices. Over the years, many electronics manufacturers have taken to producing all sorts of laser, radar and infrared jammers.
One of the most successful detectors available on the market is the Valentine V1. While other laser, radar and infrared detectors and jammers do work, none of them are capable of detecting all the different types of cameras that motorists will encounter on the road in one system.
The Valentine V1 combines all these different sensors together into one system that detects either radar or laser based cameras approaching from any direction. Giving a full 360 degree coverage. This gives the motorist an incredible sense of situational awareness and the ability to detect the range and direction of a speed camera.
Unfortunately, these jammers and detectors are HIGHLY illegal in Singapore and the penalties for being caught in possession of such devices are much higher than a speeding ticket. Thus motorists will have to rely on their keen sense of awareness on the roads to avoid being caught on camera.
Since its opening in 2008, the Kallang-Paya Lebar Expressway (KPE) has caused much anguish among motorists over its strict 70kmh speed limit. This rather low speed limit (the slowest of any expressway here) is enforced by no less than six state of the art digital speed cameras with three in each direction.
Rather than using film based cameras like on the other local expressways, the authorities opted to go digital as the system serviceability will not be affected by the amount of film contained inside. The images captured by the cameras are beamed directly to the Traffic Police headquarters through embedded LAN cables which speeds up the prosecution of the offenders.
The cameras use a mixture of laser and radar sensors to nab errant motorists. Proof of the cameras' effectiveness was evident when the KPE was initially opened. Capturing no less than 3,400 motorists within the first week alone. The unusually high number was caused and contributed by several factors.
Unlike the cameras deployed on other expressways, the KPE cameras only allow a small margin of allowance as compared to those on other expressways which can be as high as 20kmh. The KPE speed cameras are regularly calibrated to activate at just 15kmh (85kmh) over the speed limit.
Another contributing factor to the camera's great success is their prominence. While the cameras deployed on the PIE and AYE are identified by their large grey boxes, the KPE cameras are much smaller. Each of the three camera system is made up of three 30cm by 30 cm boxes that are camouflaged by their grey colour against the dimly lit tunnel walls. The two boxes affixed to the left side of the tunnel wall contain the radar, infrared sensor and camera while the sole box on the right wall contains an additional radar sensor.
Rumours are rife that LTA will be replacing the other film based cameras along the other expressways to a similar digital system soon. If that happens, we can expect the number of speed violations to surge again.
What happens after you're caught
Well, depending on how badly you've flouted the speed limits, it could range from a simple slap on the wrist (warning letter) to a court attendance that might end with a jail sentence. For speeding between 20kmh to 40kmh above the limit, the Traffic Police will deduct between four to eight points with a compoundable fine.
If you've been caught speeding 60kmh above the limit, it would entail an immediate suspension of your license and an appointment with the judge will be mandatory. This could also end up with your ride being impounded if it is found to possess illegal modifications.
The highest speed ever recorded with the offender convicted in Singapore is 180kmh which was recorded along ECP by a stationary speed camera. Compare this to the world's highest speed ever recorded by a convicted offender, which is 390kmh, that almost seems slow.
On a serious note though, the authorities take a very serious stand against speedsters on our little island. And it's better to half throttle your way around with freedom than to full throttle your way into incarceration.
There has been a civilian arms race against falling victim to these speed enforcement devices. Over the years, many electronics manufacturers have taken to producing all sorts of laser, radar and infrared jammers.
One of the most successful detectors available on the market is the Valentine V1. While other laser, radar and infrared detectors and jammers do work, none of them are capable of detecting all the different types of cameras that motorists will encounter on the road in one system.
The Valentine V1 combines all these different sensors together into one system that detects either radar or laser based cameras approaching from any direction. Giving a full 360 degree coverage. This gives the motorist an incredible sense of situational awareness and the ability to detect the range and direction of a speed camera.
Unfortunately, these jammers and detectors are HIGHLY illegal in Singapore and the penalties for being caught in possession of such devices are much higher than a speeding ticket. Thus motorists will have to rely on their keen sense of awareness on the roads to avoid being caught on camera.
Since its opening in 2008, the Kallang-Paya Lebar Expressway (KPE) has caused much anguish among motorists over its strict 70kmh speed limit. This rather low speed limit (the slowest of any expressway here) is enforced by no less than six state of the art digital speed cameras with three in each direction.
Rather than using film based cameras like on the other local expressways, the authorities opted to go digital as the system serviceability will not be affected by the amount of film contained inside. The images captured by the cameras are beamed directly to the Traffic Police headquarters through embedded LAN cables which speeds up the prosecution of the offenders.
The cameras use a mixture of laser and radar sensors to nab errant motorists. Proof of the cameras' effectiveness was evident when the KPE was initially opened. Capturing no less than 3,400 motorists within the first week alone. The unusually high number was caused and contributed by several factors.
 |
Unlike the cameras deployed on other expressways, the KPE cameras only allow a small margin of allowance as compared to those on other expressways which can be as high as 20kmh. The KPE speed cameras are regularly calibrated to activate at just 15kmh (85kmh) over the speed limit.
Another contributing factor to the camera's great success is their prominence. While the cameras deployed on the PIE and AYE are identified by their large grey boxes, the KPE cameras are much smaller. Each of the three camera system is made up of three 30cm by 30 cm boxes that are camouflaged by their grey colour against the dimly lit tunnel walls. The two boxes affixed to the left side of the tunnel wall contain the radar, infrared sensor and camera while the sole box on the right wall contains an additional radar sensor.
Rumours are rife that LTA will be replacing the other film based cameras along the other expressways to a similar digital system soon. If that happens, we can expect the number of speed violations to surge again.
What happens after you're caught
Well, depending on how badly you've flouted the speed limits, it could range from a simple slap on the wrist (warning letter) to a court attendance that might end with a jail sentence. For speeding between 20kmh to 40kmh above the limit, the Traffic Police will deduct between four to eight points with a compoundable fine.
If you've been caught speeding 60kmh above the limit, it would entail an immediate suspension of your license and an appointment with the judge will be mandatory. This could also end up with your ride being impounded if it is found to possess illegal modifications.
The highest speed ever recorded with the offender convicted in Singapore is 180kmh which was recorded along ECP by a stationary speed camera. Compare this to the world's highest speed ever recorded by a convicted offender, which is 390kmh, that almost seems slow.
On a serious note though, the authorities take a very serious stand against speedsters on our little island. And it's better to half throttle your way around with freedom than to full throttle your way into incarceration.
We've all fallen victim to these dreaded devices at one time or another in our motoring experiences. If you've been fortunate enough to avoid being captured by these grey boxes thus far, the authorities will eventually get a Kodak moment of you. If not now, then maybe five years down the road. Such is the brutal effectiveness of these silent sentinels.
Oddly enough, the speed camera was developed by a Dutch rally racing driver named Maurice Gatsonides back in the 1960s. He invented the camera (quite innocently enough) as a way of recording his speed when he drove through various corners and differing road surface conditions.
Later Gatsonides founded Gatsometer BV that began developing the system further and marketed it to police agencies as a way of speed enforcement. Since then, the Gatso has become the bane of all motorists the world over. Gatso speed cameras are now used internationally with their biggest grouping in Europe where the word 'Gatso' is commonly used when referring to speed cameras.
Law enforcement agencies around the world have lauded the device as a means of improving road safety through speed enforcement. In recent years though, data collected has shown that these devices have no impact on accidents and in some instances even perpetuates accidents when drivers apply their brakes at the last minute after spotting them. Proving the long held belief that these devices are nothing more than another revenue stream with which governments use to fill their coffers.
Types of Speed cameras
Modern speed cameras depend on a number of different sensors to detect the speed of an approaching vehicle. We take a look at the two most popular types of detection used in modern speed cameras...
Radar
The most commonly used sensor for stationary speed cameras is RADAR. Radar in itself is actually an acronym that stands for RAdio Detecting And Ranging. Radar uses high frequency radio waves that are transmitted in a cone shape. The radio waves reflect back to its transmitter/receiver when it encounters a solid object in its path. The reflected signals are then calculated using algorithms to determine the speed, distance and direction of the object.
Radar speed cameras are divided into two types. Stationary cameras usually rely on having a transmitter permanently on and pointing towards the road (usually the fastest lane).Thus triggering immediately when a vehicle is detected going over the limit. An example of such cameras can be found on our local expressways. One such example resides along the PIE near the BKE exit.
The second type uses pulse radar that requires the camera to be manned. The radar is turned on only long enough to get a speed reading. This system is however not deployed by the local authorities.
Laser
Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation though most of us will know it only as a thin red beam of light that we use on our Powerpoint presentations. This electromagnetic radiation transmits at a significantly higher frequency thus its smaller beam.
The width of a laser beam is much thinner compared to a radar. At 1000 metres, the beam from a laser is only three metres which is miniscule compared to the radar. This allows a laser based camera to have an operational range of 800 metres and lock on to a target vehicle within 0.3 to 0.7 seconds.
Due to its compact size and extended operating range, the laser speed camera sees liberal use on our local roads. The cameras are usually deployed by just one officer thanks to its compact size. The officers usually position themselves on overhead bridges that cross a major road or expressway with a clear line of sight in either direction. Letting them use the camera's 800 metre range to great effect.
Recently, the officers operating these cameras have taken to using sneakier tactics to catch motorists unaware. Rather than taking a prominent perch in the centre of the overhead bridge overlooking the road, they've resorted to standing at the extreme ends of the bridge to camouflage themselves. Though this cuts down on the laser speed camera's effective range, the camera is still effective due to its short lock-on time.
Oddly enough, the speed camera was developed by a Dutch rally racing driver named Maurice Gatsonides back in the 1960s. He invented the camera (quite innocently enough) as a way of recording his speed when he drove through various corners and differing road surface conditions.
Later Gatsonides founded Gatsometer BV that began developing the system further and marketed it to police agencies as a way of speed enforcement. Since then, the Gatso has become the bane of all motorists the world over. Gatso speed cameras are now used internationally with their biggest grouping in Europe where the word 'Gatso' is commonly used when referring to speed cameras.
Law enforcement agencies around the world have lauded the device as a means of improving road safety through speed enforcement. In recent years though, data collected has shown that these devices have no impact on accidents and in some instances even perpetuates accidents when drivers apply their brakes at the last minute after spotting them. Proving the long held belief that these devices are nothing more than another revenue stream with which governments use to fill their coffers.
Types of Speed cameras
Modern speed cameras depend on a number of different sensors to detect the speed of an approaching vehicle. We take a look at the two most popular types of detection used in modern speed cameras...
Radar
The most commonly used sensor for stationary speed cameras is RADAR. Radar in itself is actually an acronym that stands for RAdio Detecting And Ranging. Radar uses high frequency radio waves that are transmitted in a cone shape. The radio waves reflect back to its transmitter/receiver when it encounters a solid object in its path. The reflected signals are then calculated using algorithms to determine the speed, distance and direction of the object.
Radar speed cameras are divided into two types. Stationary cameras usually rely on having a transmitter permanently on and pointing towards the road (usually the fastest lane).Thus triggering immediately when a vehicle is detected going over the limit. An example of such cameras can be found on our local expressways. One such example resides along the PIE near the BKE exit.
The second type uses pulse radar that requires the camera to be manned. The radar is turned on only long enough to get a speed reading. This system is however not deployed by the local authorities.
|
Laser
Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation though most of us will know it only as a thin red beam of light that we use on our Powerpoint presentations. This electromagnetic radiation transmits at a significantly higher frequency thus its smaller beam.
The width of a laser beam is much thinner compared to a radar. At 1000 metres, the beam from a laser is only three metres which is miniscule compared to the radar. This allows a laser based camera to have an operational range of 800 metres and lock on to a target vehicle within 0.3 to 0.7 seconds.
Due to its compact size and extended operating range, the laser speed camera sees liberal use on our local roads. The cameras are usually deployed by just one officer thanks to its compact size. The officers usually position themselves on overhead bridges that cross a major road or expressway with a clear line of sight in either direction. Letting them use the camera's 800 metre range to great effect.
Recently, the officers operating these cameras have taken to using sneakier tactics to catch motorists unaware. Rather than taking a prominent perch in the centre of the overhead bridge overlooking the road, they've resorted to standing at the extreme ends of the bridge to camouflage themselves. Though this cuts down on the laser speed camera's effective range, the camera is still effective due to its short lock-on time.
Avoiding the dreaded flash
There has been a civilian arms race against falling victim to these speed enforcement devices. Over the years, many electronics manufacturers have taken to producing all sorts of laser, radar and infrared jammers.
One of the most successful detectors available on the market is the Valentine V1. While other laser, radar and infrared detectors and jammers do work, none of them are capable of detecting all the different types of cameras that motorists will encounter on the road in one system.
The Valentine V1 combines all these different sensors together into one system that detects either radar or laser based cameras approaching from any direction. Giving a full 360 degree coverage. This gives the motorist an incredible sense of situational awareness and the ability to detect the range and direction of a speed camera.
Unfortunately, these jammers and detectors are HIGHLY illegal in Singapore and the penalties for being caught in possession of such devices are much higher than a speeding ticket. Thus motorists will have to rely on their keen sense of awareness on the roads to avoid being caught on camera.
Since its opening in 2008, the Kallang-Paya Lebar Expressway (KPE) has caused much anguish among motorists over its strict 70kmh speed limit. This rather low speed limit (the slowest of any expressway here) is enforced by no less than six state of the art digital speed cameras with three in each direction.
Rather than using film based cameras like on the other local expressways, the authorities opted to go digital as the system serviceability will not be affected by the amount of film contained inside. The images captured by the cameras are beamed directly to the Traffic Police headquarters through embedded LAN cables which speeds up the prosecution of the offenders.
The cameras use a mixture of laser and radar sensors to nab errant motorists. Proof of the cameras' effectiveness was evident when the KPE was initially opened. Capturing no less than 3,400 motorists within the first week alone. The unusually high number was caused and contributed by several factors.
Unlike the cameras deployed on other expressways, the KPE cameras only allow a small margin of allowance as compared to those on other expressways which can be as high as 20kmh. The KPE speed cameras are regularly calibrated to activate at just 15kmh (85kmh) over the speed limit.
Another contributing factor to the camera's great success is their prominence. While the cameras deployed on the PIE and AYE are identified by their large grey boxes, the KPE cameras are much smaller. Each of the three camera system is made up of three 30cm by 30 cm boxes that are camouflaged by their grey colour against the dimly lit tunnel walls. The two boxes affixed to the left side of the tunnel wall contain the radar, infrared sensor and camera while the sole box on the right wall contains an additional radar sensor.
Rumours are rife that LTA will be replacing the other film based cameras along the other expressways to a similar digital system soon. If that happens, we can expect the number of speed violations to surge again.
What happens after you're caught
Well, depending on how badly you've flouted the speed limits, it could range from a simple slap on the wrist (warning letter) to a court attendance that might end with a jail sentence. For speeding between 20kmh to 40kmh above the limit, the Traffic Police will deduct between four to eight points with a compoundable fine.
If you've been caught speeding 60kmh above the limit, it would entail an immediate suspension of your license and an appointment with the judge will be mandatory. This could also end up with your ride being impounded if it is found to possess illegal modifications.
The highest speed ever recorded with the offender convicted in Singapore is 180kmh which was recorded along ECP by a stationary speed camera. Compare this to the world's highest speed ever recorded by a convicted offender, which is 390kmh, that almost seems slow.
On a serious note though, the authorities take a very serious stand against speedsters on our little island. And it's better to half throttle your way around with freedom than to full throttle your way into incarceration.
There has been a civilian arms race against falling victim to these speed enforcement devices. Over the years, many electronics manufacturers have taken to producing all sorts of laser, radar and infrared jammers.
One of the most successful detectors available on the market is the Valentine V1. While other laser, radar and infrared detectors and jammers do work, none of them are capable of detecting all the different types of cameras that motorists will encounter on the road in one system.
The Valentine V1 combines all these different sensors together into one system that detects either radar or laser based cameras approaching from any direction. Giving a full 360 degree coverage. This gives the motorist an incredible sense of situational awareness and the ability to detect the range and direction of a speed camera.
Unfortunately, these jammers and detectors are HIGHLY illegal in Singapore and the penalties for being caught in possession of such devices are much higher than a speeding ticket. Thus motorists will have to rely on their keen sense of awareness on the roads to avoid being caught on camera.
Since its opening in 2008, the Kallang-Paya Lebar Expressway (KPE) has caused much anguish among motorists over its strict 70kmh speed limit. This rather low speed limit (the slowest of any expressway here) is enforced by no less than six state of the art digital speed cameras with three in each direction.
Rather than using film based cameras like on the other local expressways, the authorities opted to go digital as the system serviceability will not be affected by the amount of film contained inside. The images captured by the cameras are beamed directly to the Traffic Police headquarters through embedded LAN cables which speeds up the prosecution of the offenders.
The cameras use a mixture of laser and radar sensors to nab errant motorists. Proof of the cameras' effectiveness was evident when the KPE was initially opened. Capturing no less than 3,400 motorists within the first week alone. The unusually high number was caused and contributed by several factors.
|
Unlike the cameras deployed on other expressways, the KPE cameras only allow a small margin of allowance as compared to those on other expressways which can be as high as 20kmh. The KPE speed cameras are regularly calibrated to activate at just 15kmh (85kmh) over the speed limit.
Another contributing factor to the camera's great success is their prominence. While the cameras deployed on the PIE and AYE are identified by their large grey boxes, the KPE cameras are much smaller. Each of the three camera system is made up of three 30cm by 30 cm boxes that are camouflaged by their grey colour against the dimly lit tunnel walls. The two boxes affixed to the left side of the tunnel wall contain the radar, infrared sensor and camera while the sole box on the right wall contains an additional radar sensor.
Rumours are rife that LTA will be replacing the other film based cameras along the other expressways to a similar digital system soon. If that happens, we can expect the number of speed violations to surge again.
What happens after you're caught
Well, depending on how badly you've flouted the speed limits, it could range from a simple slap on the wrist (warning letter) to a court attendance that might end with a jail sentence. For speeding between 20kmh to 40kmh above the limit, the Traffic Police will deduct between four to eight points with a compoundable fine.
If you've been caught speeding 60kmh above the limit, it would entail an immediate suspension of your license and an appointment with the judge will be mandatory. This could also end up with your ride being impounded if it is found to possess illegal modifications.
The highest speed ever recorded with the offender convicted in Singapore is 180kmh which was recorded along ECP by a stationary speed camera. Compare this to the world's highest speed ever recorded by a convicted offender, which is 390kmh, that almost seems slow.
On a serious note though, the authorities take a very serious stand against speedsters on our little island. And it's better to half throttle your way around with freedom than to full throttle your way into incarceration.
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